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The 19th century in art history was a tumultuous period, marked by a rapid succession of movements that reflected profound societal, political, and philosophical shifts. The neoclassical ideals of the late 18th century, with their emphasis on order, reason, and classical antiquity, gave way to the passionate and individualistic spirit of Romanticism, which sought to express intense emotion and the power of the imagination. Artists like Eugène Delacroix, with his dramatic and colorful narratives such as Liberty Leading the People, and J.M.W. Turner, known for his awe-inspiring and often turbulent seascapes and landscapes that captured the raw force of nature, explored themes of emotion, the sublime, and dramatic historical or mythological narratives. This period saw a heightened interest in the individual's subjective experience and inner world, often expressed through dramatic brushwork, vivid color, and compositions that evoked awe, terror, deep melancholy, or intense longing, moving decisively away from the rigid strictures and polished finish of academic tradition. Francisco Goya, though a transitional figure, also deeply influenced Romanticism with his unflinching portrayal of human suffering and the dark aspects of society in works like The Third of May 1808.

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Mid-century witnessed a powerful counter-reaction to Romanticism's theatricality and idealism with the rise of Realism. This movement turned sharply towards the observable world, depicting ordinary people, contemporary life, and unidealized landscapes with an unflinching, almost photographic honesty. Artists such as Gustave Courbet, whose monumental The Stone Breakers depicted the arduous labor of the working class, and Édouard Manet, who challenged academic conventions with his provocative portrayals of modern urban life in works like Olympia, deliberately chose subjects from everyday existence. This radical shift was fueled by the social and industrial revolutions of the era, which brought about a new awareness of class struggles, poverty, and the gritty realities faced by the common person. Realism sought to represent truth and authenticity, often challenging the established hierarchies of subject matter and technique, and its embrace of the mundane and tangible laid the crucial groundwork for even more radical departures from traditional art forms, directly influencing the next wave of artistic innovation. Jean-François Millet, with his poignant depictions of peasant life, such as The Gleaners, further exemplified this commitment to portraying the dignity and hardship of rural existence.

 

The latter part of the 19th century saw the emergence of Impressionism, a movement that revolutionized the way artists perceived and represented light and color. Led by figures like Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Edgar Degas, Impressionists sought to capture the fleeting, sensory experience of a moment, often painting en plein air (outdoors) to directly observe the effects of changing light and atmosphere. Their characteristic loose brushstrokes, vibrant palettes, and focus on subjective perception marked a radical break from traditional academic painting and paved the way for subsequent modernist movements. This emphasis on subjective experience and the visible world, rather than grand narratives or idealized forms, profoundly influenced the trajectory of art into the 20th century.